The field of organizational behaviour Essay Example for Free

The field of organizational behaviour Essay Introduction: The organization is the result of a process of organizing a group of people, aimed at achieving common goals that their complexity cannot be achieved by one person. So, the organization has developed from the need to produce goods in much higher than in times past could make workers in their workshops. Also, the organization has emerged as a necessity to increase efficiency and quality work. We can say the organization is a system that is characterized by a specific functional structure and a process through which the common targets and specific. For example, the university is a organization that integrates student, teacher, administrator and laboratory technical staff, aimed at the generation, transfer and diffusion of knowledge. In any organization there are two fundamental processes: a process for achieving products and services for which an organization was created and a management process to ensure implementation of the first in terms of efficiency and quality Organization is characterized by an internal environment, external environment and a functional interface between the two environments. Being an open system, we see the existence of the system input streams and output streams of system. Internal environment is characterized by the existence of generalized field of forces and a transformation of input into output. External environment are characterized by having a generalized field of forces that act continuously on the organization, at its interface with the intern environment .If these forces are stronger than the internal environment, the organization declines and if adaptation measures are not taken, in this case result bankruptcy. For example: a factory that produces fertilizers for agriculture, manages to successfully sell products market and to ensure good employees a salary. Management of company has developed a dynamic equilibrium between existing forces inside and outside At a time, there is a law protecting the environment and impose more severe  requirements new quantities of harmful substances discharged into the atmosphere or wastewaters .This means that the external environment have developed strong legislative force, for which there is enough strength inside and so was some imbalance. To restore the dynamic balance of company is necessary to invest in new technologies for filtering and treating harmful substances, in order to meet new standards. If fails this, technological line may be closed and if the company has no other viable processes, the company may go bankruptcy. The organization is on based two structures: a functional and organizational structure. The ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE of units is all position work and departments that make up the unit, their grouping and subordination including links to be established between them to carry out properly all work tasks. When is projected, a rational and efficient organization structure must meet certain general requirements such as covering the whole spectrum of activities of the organization and to distribute them properly, to ensure continuity and fluidity in carrying out, to ensure that management units at each level as possible that each have a single chief subordinated; also be flexible to adapt to different light requirements: amplification for organization development, job cuts for a decline in the organization etc.. Characteristic elements of an organizational structure are: position, function, hierarchical level, department, hierarchical share, and functional connexion. POSITION is a set of tas ks, objectives, powers and responsibilities incumbent in regularly and one permanent employee. FUNCTION represents all jobs with the same characteristics .So, in organization more employees can work with as head of department or head office. HIERARCHICAL SHARE is number of employees led by a directly manager. In a mid-sized or large enterprise hierarchy shares is 4-8 subordinates for positions located in the upper half of the managerial pyramid and can grow up to 20-30 subordinates, as the hierarchical level approaches the bottom. DEPERTMENT are all employees divided into groups subordinate to the same manager. HIERARCHICAL LEVEL represents all departments that are at the same distance from the top of hierarchical pyramid management. As hierarchical level has a lower value, the better will be more levels in that organization. As the number of hierarchical levels is greater with both the managerial pyramid is higher. As the number of hierarchical levels is smaller, so the pyramid becomes flattened. For example, Ford inherited an organizational structure with 17 vertical levels of hierarchy, and the youngest company Toyota has only 5 hierarchical levels. FUNCTIONAL CONNEXION is necessary to integrate all functional activities. Connexions or links include: vertical, horizontal and vertical and oblique. Organizational structure with the functional integration is performed using the following concepts: authority, responsibility, delegation, centralization, decentralization and specialization. AUTHORITY managers can ensure order. Subordinate first decision you need to implement even if they sometimes have different views. RESPONSIBILITY we all know that accepting a job, is implicitly and accountability to achieve the objectives set and answer for their failure to achieve. DELEGATION is a share transfer, for a period of time, a decision of a competent other people, at a lower hierarchical level .Superiors delegates, transferring authority to subordinates in order to facilitate the activity. Another important structure underlying an organization is FUNCTIONAL STRUCTURE which we can say that involve functions such as research and development function, production function, the function of commercial, financial accounting function and staff function. About research and development function we can say that integrates aimed at generating new knowledge and ideas on the production and their introduction .Innovation is one of the most powerful and competitive strategies of firm .This includes activities such as: forecasting activities, research, development and innovation, implementation and evaluation of results. Another function is the production: the company that processes inputs in order to enable the products and services to satisfy the law are basically existential demand consumers. Basically, production is the existential law firm. Function of production includes activities such as programming,  scheduling and monitoring production, manufacture or use, control processes and outcomes, and repair equipment Commercial operation is achieved in two ways: from environment to organization and from organization to external environment. In environment first case the function performs supply material resource, energy, financial and information organization and in the latter function makes the sale and selling or offering products and services to population. Base activities of this function are supply, sales and marketing. Financial accounting function includes all activities that provide financial resources necessary to achieve business objectives and out value financial cycle of organization. In achieve this function .There are three major activities: financial activities, accounting and financial control management. FINANCIAL ACTIVITIES represents all processes which determine and obtain the necessary financial resources for firm. ACCOUNTING objectives relate to activities which highlight the value recorded and material and financial resources management financial of organization. FINANCIAL CONTROL MANAGEMENT refers to activities which check legal compliance regarding the existence, integrity, use and storage of material goods and money which is equipped organization. PERSONNEL FUNCTION integrates activities that comprise the recruitment, hiring, training and continuous improvement staff organization. This function has activities like: evaluation of staffing, personnel selection, framing staff, performance appraisal, motivation and training personnel. FUNCTIONAL STRUCTURE is a classical structure, characterized by aggregation of positions in homogeneous department which performs a function of the organization. For example, the entire organization is structured on the departments like: research and development department, production department, human resources, accounting department and marketing department. Efficiency potential of functional structure is achieved by specialized employees in defined areas of activities and their motivation by allowing hierarchical promotion to the top pyramid. When diversify company production very much and is distributed across many intern and international markets can begin to find problems between units responsible for carrying out various products. Functional structure is used in centralized and remain  effective as long as the field strength variations in the external environment is very slow, and if the changes are predictable. In a highly dynamic external environment that requires quick reactions from firms to adapt, functional structure behaves rigid and higher response times to changes. Some of the advantages of functional structure are: creating conditions for specialized personnel to increase efficiency of staff capacity;-departments employees must communicate regulated. About disadvantage of functional structure:-enhancing coordination comportment difficulty because of its sequence of activities; some employees get work of their department rather than the benefit of the organization;-company conflicts between departments when business objectives are met, each compartment tending to exculpate. The functional organizational structure is characterized by the formation of groups that share similar functions. (SCOTT HEBERT). Other important structures underlying on organization are CENTRALIZATION and DECENTRALIZATION. Centralization is concentration in higher management authorities, in which most decisions are developed and has strong control over structural hierarchy organization. DECENTRALIZATION is granted autonomy in decision-making managers to average and lower. Centralization advantages are: control, stability, coordination, responsibility, economies of scale. Centralization has disadvantages such as the implementation of decisions takes more time, because managers must obtain approval from all relevant authorities. Also narrow spectrum management activities. Advantages decentralization activities are: speed, flexibility, responsiveness, relevance, motivation. DECENTRALIZATION disadvantages are: diseconomies of scale; more difficult to ensure consistent practices and policies (customer might prefer consistency from location to location) Fast-food business like Burger King and Pizza Hut use a predominantly centralised structure. Also, McDonalds is an excellent example of company with centralised structure. These restaurants are typically franchises they all receive food and packaging from the same approved vendors. All  decision-making about menus and marketing are made at the corporate level in the America. Major supermarket chain like Morrison and Tesco use a decentralised structure .Each supermarket has a store manager who can make certain decision concerning areas like staffing, sales promotion. The store manager is responsible to a regional or area manager. Honda Motor Co. is a company with a decentralized structure. Honda develops its products in the regional markets in which it operates. The company has over 500 subsidiaries and affiliates throughout the world. The company is headed by an executive council Japan, but operations are divided across six regions (Honda, 2009). This allows Honda to sell  cars and motorcycles that are most suited to the preferences of each region. Additionally, the fact that Honda vehicles are manufactured in the region they are sold encourages the local population to view these vehicles more positively.(SCOTT HEBERT). Other models of organizational structure are product based structure, divisional structure, matrix structure, geographically structure, network structure and team structure. PRODUCT BASED STRUCTURE is a method of identifying all products from units. Advantages: -helps to develop products or services better able to meet customer needs;-oriented staff interest and help increase motivation. Disadvantage: may cause the creation of autonomous units that can be driven hard. DIVISIONAL STRUCTURE is characterized by aggregation of position on the type of products. For each type of products constitute a division. It was created especially for very large companies with production facilities in different geographic areas of the same country or different countries. For example, Suzuki has 6 large factories located in different geographical  areas of Japan. Each manufacture is to produce a certain type of car or motorcycle. Divisional structure allows managerial autonomy for each main division. Advantage of this structure is that employees of a division can focus on any particular type of product and how best to meet the requirements consumers. By aggregation products, divisions are so technologically equipped better meet the quality requirements imposed on the market. Because all employees working for proper tooth-a division of this category of consumers, work relations are converging towards common objectives, avoiding conflict relationships. For divisions located in different geographical areas, functional autonomy allows them to respond adequately local market demands. Divisional structure made an important step in the decentralization process by defining substantial autonomy to each division, which led to better adapt them to different market requirements. The divisional structure divides the company into groups based on product, market, or region.(SCOTT HEBERT). MATRIX STRUCTURE has a vertical reunion of work position according to company functions and horizontal reunion of work positions according to typology product. In such a structure, an employee relates to the requirements of two heads: one vertical head (functional manager) and one horizontal head (product manager). It is a complex structure, whose  effectiveness depends on the professionalism of managers and on the  organizational structure which promotes well quality. Matrix structure is indicated in organization, which have a static functional structure over a dynamic structure overlapping projects. While department heads positively correlated with their functional performance, the project heads positively correlated with duration of their projects. This structure, theoretically offers a lot of advantages, in practice, duality managerial responsibilities is also a high potential conflict. Also, because is complexity structure appear difficulties for assessing performance and identifying opportunities for quality improvement. Several advantages of matrix structure are: flexibility and shaping them so  as to obtain maximum efficiency and better utilization of resources;- information circulates more rapidly, using both the vertical and horizontal flows of communication. Some disadvantages of matrix structure are: the existence of several command lines may affect the dilution of responsibilities;-conflicts may occur between the desire to hold managers more authority;-although information move faster decision-making process takes longer, meetings due to be held between department managers in the decision. GEOGRAPHICALLY STRUCTURE: organization operates in different areas, regions, countries or continents. Local manager is responsible for all activity performed by the company in his area and is subordinate to the general manager of company (head office). Advantages: -the power to decide local managers; -knowledge in detail the coordinates local-market knowledge that can be better exploited locally. Disadvantages:-differences of language and culture that could prevent the information flow;-lack of interest in promoting regional departments of new products,  made at central head. The McDonalds business is a geographical structure, divided its operation into 5 geographical division. McDonalds has over 31,000restaurants in 120 countries. TEAM STRUCTURE can be implemented in companies with a high degree of decentralization. Teams are so they can make a full product. In a team, each employee must be able to perform several types of operations such as assembly teammates to be able to integrate work in making a finished product. Team structure led to decentralization advanced production and management, thus increasing the flexibility to adapt and significantly reduce response time to change. Advantages: workers are motivated; response decision-making takes place in a quick time; -level management is removed:-costs are administration in  reduced. Disadvantages: conflicts between team members; increased time spent in meetings; -time-management issues. NETWORK STRUCTURE is based on the most advanced information technologies and the explosive development internet .Is very  decentralized structure and dynamic, able to change and adapt fast. Network structure is composite of various people or organizations, located on a large geographical area, aimed at achieving a common goal with the contribution, skills and resources. Partners in a organization have legal status and electronic connections depend on coordination of their activities. For example, MITSUBISHI group consists of several companies (28), being joined by other members holding shares through collaborative relationships and the social links .Of MITSUBISHI group, remark 3 main companies:-MITSUBISHI HEAVY INDUSTRY (for production); MITSUBISHI BANK (for finance) and MITSUBISHI CORPORATION (for marketing). Advantages network structure:-facilitate the achievement of objectives complex, impossible to achieve on their own. CONCLUSION I managed to expose previously, multiple organizational structures, each one with similarities and differences. Indifferent of the structure underlying an organization, all structure having the common goals which are favourable business itself. Each structure in part aims to reach maximum business success through efficiency and quality of work that are performed in the organization. REFERENCE Cliffs Notes-Principles of Management: Five Approaches to Organisational Design. McDonald steam3.blogspot.co.uk Practical management.com-Transforming Theories Into Practice. Scott Hebert (Mar.23 rd. 2009)-Introduction to Organizational Structure. Scott Hebert (Jan.30th. 2009)-Market Strategy and Organizational Structure: Three Companies. Study Notes: People Management.

Swiss Style Typography History

Swiss Style Typography History What is it a good graphic design? Good graphic design or typography is like a taste. Hallmark of the taste rests in sensitivity, from feelings. Every one has a different taste, but it is indispensable for everyone. Graphic design works on an equal basis. We are not born with the right taste as well as there are no born masters of graphic design. All of them have to be every of them self educated. Perfect graphic consist of many elements, as a result of harmony. This magazine traces the growth of the good graphic design. It depicts not only the growth, but also a designers who formed the style, the people and ideas that influenced them and the following generations who were attracted to Swiss graphic design. This progressive, radical movement Swiss style also known as an International style, was originated in Switzerland in the 1920s . This style became famous because of very talented Swiss graphic designers. It emerged from Russian s Constructivism, Germany s De Stijl and Dadaism. The International Typographic Style, or Swiss Style, refers to the graphic design movement that evolved in Switzerland during the 1950s. Emphasizing clarity of information, the International Style propagated an aesthetic of objective photography in place of illustration; asymmetrical arrangement of elements on a modular grid system; sans-serif typography such as Akzidenz Grotesk; and flush left, ragged right configuration of text. Admired for its simple, clean, factual, and highly structured approach to organizing and presenting information. The magazine is divided into three parts. Part One shows the origins of the Swiss style, general information about the style, political and social influences. The following part represents the central figures in this movement and the New typography.6 swiss style In the post war period, modern design began more significant with development of industrialized society. Switzerland bacame an appropriate site for growth of an International style, by means of the country s position in the centre of Europe and its political neutrality. However, Swiss style started to grow in after the First World War in Europe. Henry van de Velde (1863 1957) was a famous Belgian architect and designer. He was also one of the most successful and important practitioners of the Art Nouveau style. He was known as the first Art Nouveau artist to work in an abstract style and developed the concept of the union of form and function. His idea was to bring art to industry. Van de Velde was the main graphic designer who influenced young Swiss designers. He was one of the founders of the decorative arts school of Weimar. This school was later called the Bauhaus. In 1907 he designed the new building of The School of Arts and Crafts and became the first director of this school. Among the teachers there were Russian, Wassily Kandinsky, Swiss Paul Klee and Johannes Itten. Young Swiss graphic designers attracted the school and many of them studied at the Bauhaus. The influence from the Bauhaus was apparent in Max Bill (1908 1994) and Theo Ballmer (1902 1965) works. Max Bill, a painter belonging to the Concrete Art movement in Z rich applied mathematical systems for the organization of space to his graphic design work. Another style which had an effect for the growth of an International style was Constructivism. Constructivism art refers to the optimistic, non-representational relief construction, sculpture, kinetics and painting. The artists did not believe in abstract ideas, rather they tried to link art with concrete and tangible ideas. Constructivist art is committed to complete abstraction with a devotion to modernity, where themes are often geometric, experimental and rarely emotional. El Lissitzky (1890 1941) was the main represetatives of Russian Constructivism. He brought a New Typography and photomontage to Switzerland. Lissitzky attended to the fundamental transformation of perception of literature. From acoustic percept of the past became visible words. Optical character of the new typography was defined in his bo ok from 1923. His work greatly influenced the Swiss style. Not only Wassily Kandinsky and Paul Klle who were teachers at Bauhaus, but also L szl Moholo Nagy (1895 1946) had notable position there. He had similar visual conception as Lissitzky. He was oriented in interaction of photography and text. Moholo Nagy perceived photography like an objective representation which can rescue obscurdity of words. He brought typography to question, he defined a new revolutionary idea typofoto combination of typography and photographic images.It is an objective form of representation based at princip of communication. Both of these movements influenced a new directions of art and development of graphic design. A book of modern graphic design Gefesselter Blick (Captured Glance) was published in Stuttgard in 1930. It was Sponzored by the Swiss Werkbund s Advertising Designers Circle. Design from 1920s publications were displayed in the book.. The book was edited by architects Heinz Rasch and Bodo Rasch. They rounded up a work of twenty six artists of the avant garde. Most of them were Germans (Werner Graef), three Swiss (Otto Baumberger, Max Bill and Walter Cylian), two Dutch (Paul Schutema, Piet Zwart), Russian (El Lissitzky), and Czech (Karel Teige). Even though, the Swiss were influenced by many styles, their own style became unique.Gefesselter Blick displays the origins and growth of the Swiss style. 8 swiss style In the first part of the magazine we introduced the origins and problems of the Swiss style in Graphic design. In this part we will mention the main artists, designers and propagonists of this movement. Ernst Keller (1931 2006) the father of Swiss design, was a graphic designer, artist and teacher. From 1918 and for four decades onward Keller taught a professional course in graphic design at the Kunstgewerbeschule Z rich (The Zurich School of Design) rejecting the notion of style in favor of design solutions derived from content. Keller was the most important single influence on the development of Swiss graphic design. The economically drawn images and inventive lettering of his posters designed in the 1920s and early 1930s made an important contribution to Modernism. He mentored Armin Hofmann (fig. 1), Emil Ruder, and Joseph-Muller Brockman, all of whom were important figures in what became the International Typographic Style. Significance of the International Typographic Style has been unfairly reduced to the aesthetic preferences evident in the outcomes of work by designers identified with the movement. To recognize its substance one needs to study the specifics of its origin roo ted in the curriculum developed at the Basel School of Design. One of the important figures of origins of the Swiss style was also Theo Ballmer (1902 1965). He was a designer, photographer and teacher. Ballmer studied at Bauhaus and at Kunstgewerbeschule in Zurich. He is known for his political posters and exhibitions, using only simple images and lettering (fig. 4). Otto Baumberger (1889 1961) was one of the first Swiss who can be correctly described as a poster designer. He designed more than two hundred posters, which helped to modernize the style. In its variety, Baumberger s work embodies and exemplifies the history of Swiss poster art in the first half of the twentieth century, as the painterly artist poster gradually evolved toward graphically oriented corporate design. Max Bill was another Swiss graphic artist, industrial designer, architect, sculptor, and painter, primarily important for his sophisticated, disciplined advertising designs. He studied at the Bauhaus until late 1920 s when he moved to Zurich where he became a teacher and prime member of the Allianz group of graphic designers. Max Bill belonging to the Concrete Art movement in Z rich applied mathematical systems for the organization of space to his graphic design work. Herbert Matter was a pioneer in the use of photomontage. His talented use of type earned him great international acclamation (fig.5). After working for the Swiss National Tourist Office and Swiss resorts he moved to the United States in 1936 and started teaching Photography at Yale University in 1952.12 swiss style was a leading German graphic designer who also exerted a strong influence on the Swiss school. Johannes Tzschichhold (Jan Tschichold) was born as a son of a Leipzig lettering artist and sign printer Franz Tzschichhold and his wife Maria Zapff, in April 1902. His father s profession gave him an early introduction to the many forms of written scripts. Young Tschichold often helped his father and also attended a printing museum in the Buchgewerbehaus (Book Industry Building) which were in the town. Consequently he had knowledges of typography from early age. Despite of his parents ideas, to have their son a professional art teacher, he decided to be educated as a lettering artist. While he studied (from 1919 to 1921) with Walter Tiemann, director of the Staatliche Akademie fur graphische Kunste und Buchgewerbe (Academy for Graphic Arts and Book production), he also attended courses in printmaking and bookbinding. Tschichold supported his education of the books of Edward Johnston (Calligraphy, Ornamental Script and Applied Script) and Rudolf von Larisch (Study in Ornamental Writin g) and created a number of calligraphic writings. Before leaving for Bauhas from 1921 to 1923 he worked in Leipzig as an assistant in teaching courses of calligraphy at the Academy. In 1923 he became a freelance designer in Leipzig. In the same year he visited Bauhaus exhibition and influenced by the modern artists and designers Wassily Kandinsky (1866 1944) and L szl Moholo Nagy, he started to propagate a new visual thinking. It was an inversion in his actual life. Soon, he was also introduced to the work of the Dutch graphic designer Piet Zwart 13 swiss style Exhibition poster, 1937 While getting acquainted with work we can fall into deluge of varied geometrics and simple effects. This poster looks like an absolutely pure example of New Typography. The design is simple and arithmetical. Tschichold, J. (1927) Napoleon [Poster]15 swiss style (1885 1977), and the Russian constructivists El Lisstzky. He worked with an assymetric composition, geometric shapes, the use of photography instead of illustrations and sans serif typefaces (fig. 11). In the light of my knowledge, it was a juvenile opinion to consider the sans serif as the most suitable or even the most contemporary typeface. Jan Tschichold (Jong, Purvis, Le Coultre, Doubleday and Reichardt, 2008 : 19) Tschichold was so impressed by Soviet constructivism and Russian Revolution, that he changed his name to Iwan (or Ivan) Tschichold in 1923. Tschichold became an important figure in the new movement known as the New Typography. A first spectacular publication of these views, Elementare typographie (Elementary Typography) , appeared in a special October 1925 issue of the German magazine Typographische Mitteilungen (Typographic News). This was a kind of typographic manifest and caused an uproar in the world of design. In the book Tschichold described the new ideas on typographic design. Artists and designers had various opinion at the publication. Lissitzky was delighted at the beautiful brochure. The book was received well at the Bauhaus, but the German constructivis reacted critically. Nevertheless, the book had an impact on the future design. The second book The purpose of the New Typography is functionality. The purpose of any typography is communication (the means of which are visualized).This communication has to appear in the shortest, simplest and most compelling form. For typography to serve social purposes, the inner form of the material employed must arrange the content whereas the outer form must establish a relantionship between the different typographic means. Inner organization means using as few basic constituents as possible; typefaces, numbers, signs, l ines from the type cases, and the typessetter. In the modern world focused on optics, the precise picture, i.e. photography, must be considered as a basic constituent of the New Typography. (Jong, Purvis, Le Coultre, Doubleday and Reichardt, 2008 : 39)16 swiss style was the most important, Die neue Typographie (The New Typography) was published in 1928. This book explained the function and communication of the New Typography. The book was used as a handbook for printers and publishers and even at the Bauhaus. In a small A5 format he described a modern typography in a short essay. Tschichold inspired by the functional determination of Bauhaus, formulated the basics of the modern visual communication in which aesthetics of modern abstract art were combined together with requirements for legibility, simplicity and subject information. His manifest the New Typography reflected the dynamism of life time, preferences of precision and clarity of sensatial visual. He preferred objective resources as the sans serif and geometric typeface (Grotesk), assymetric composition and whitespace. His book was widely read and highly influential as a major step in modern ideals. The book became the bible of every young typesetter. From 1927 until 1933 Tschichold constituted the New Typography in Germany, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Switzerland and France. Because of the influence of the Nazis in 1933 Tschichold submitted his registration to the Munich Meiterschule, to assume a teaching position at the new Hohere Graphische Fachschule der Stadt Berlin (Berlin Higher Vocanional School for Graphic Arts). Although Tschichold had a post in Berlin, he changed his mind and decided that he would rather stay in Munich. After the Nazi victory in March 1933, Tschichold and his wife Edith were arrested and they were denounced as a Kulturbolshewist (cultural Bolshevists). Shortly after their arrest, they were released. Tschichold with Edith and their four year son immediately left Munich and on July 28, 1933 went to Basel in Switzerland. Their friend Hermann Kienzle, the director of the Allgemeine Gererbeschule (School of Arts and Crafts) in Basel, Poster for The Professional Photographer exhibition in Basel, 1938. A clear logic organization of the elements. The poster has geometrical structure, strict horizontal and vertical alignments. He used Akzidenz typeface (consended) and only lowercase. recommended Tschichold for a teaching post at the School of Arts and Crafts. Between 1933 and 1946, Tschichold produced numerous journal articles, in part due to financial pressure.Two years after he had moved to Switzerland, he published the most important book Typographische Gestaltung (Typographic Design). At this time he began to work with more traditional typefaces and layout arrangements. This book was not only about the New Typography but also about use of photography as a design component. According to Eskilson (2007:302) In this new book, Tschichold reiterated his support for the New Typography but also suggested that the assymetric, flush left layout was not only suitable design formula. Jan Tschichold was not only a typographer and a book designer. He was also poster designer. Before he left for Switzerland he had been makink posters for publishing houses or some film posters. But his first large commission was the poster for Phoebus Palast cinema in 1927. It was the largest cinema in Germany. He created for them posters, newspapers, advertisements and programs, we would called this as a corporate identity today. The other commisions were for the Volksverband fur Filmkunst (People s Association for Film Art), or The exhibition Das Internationale Plakat. A poster is a relatively independent area of graphic design, which is the most similar to creative art by using means of expression. The large format increases the effectiveness of communication of the poster. Tschichold tried to complete the primary concept by using of the principles of the New Typography, minimalism and whitespace. His posters are organized into vertical and horizontal fields. He often worked with geometrical structure, each element is in plan type, spacing, colour, and even the meaning. In the organization of the elements, meanings are connected. Tschichold s poster designs rank among the finest in the history of graphic design. His background in typography permitted him to achieve preeminence with minimal means while consistently maintaining elegance and a maximum of expression. In the post war period, Tschichold worked for Penguin Books in London (fig. 14, 15, 16). This London s publishing looked for the best typographer and offered designers from Europe. Penguin, The New Typography, in its concern to satisfy the needs of our own period and to make sure that every single piece of printing is in harmony with the present Jan Tschichold (Jong, Purvis, Le Coultre, Doubleday and Reichardt, 2008 : 133) founded in 1935, was the first commercially successful paperback book company in Britain. (Eskilson, 2007 : 314) Penguin Books publisher Allen Lane and the famous English book printer Oliver Simon were suprised by Jan Tschichold s work. Tschichold established a fixed set of typographic standards, the Penguin compositions rules. He installed strict typesetting rules and raised them to the formal level of the printing and publishing. These rules directed attention to next composition, indenting, punctuation marks, spelling, capitals, small capitals, italics, folios, figures, references, footnotes, make up, and the printing plays and poetry. (Jong, Purvis, Le Coultre, Doubleday and Reichardt, 2008 : 269 270) In the few years spent working in London, Tschichold gained much respect and was named an honorary member of the London Double Crown Club, a selective group of English typographers and printers.In 1949 Tschichold felt that his work in Penguin was completed, it was the reason why he returned back to Switzeland. Between 1950 and 1954 he was an independent typographer in Basel. In 1955 Tschichold took a position as typographer at the Hoffmann-La Roche company in Basel. Jan Tschichold died on August 11, 1974, in Locarno, Switzerland. Josef M ller-Brockmann was a Swiss graphic designer. One of the leading graphic and typographic designer since the 1950s. Josef Muller was born on 9 May, 1914, in Rapperswill, Switzerland. His father Christian M ller had a successful career. His company CH. M ller Baugeschaft (building firm), employed dozens of men from Rapperswill and workers from abroad. Unfortunately, Christiann died two yers after his son was born, on 24 August, 1916. Mother of Josef was Ida M ller Shmucki a strong, independent woman. After her husband s death she became a widow at the age of thirty two. She stayed alone with eight children. Josef s talent emerged at the age of fourteen when attending high school. His teacher recognized his natural 25 swiss style  aptitude for drawing. Because of his mother s financial situation, Josef could not study at college. His older brother Paul (firstborn) was sent to university, although he was not as talented as his younger brother. Then Josef continued developing his illustration skills himself. Later an enthusiastic teacher at the Rapperswil Middle School recommended that Muller apply for an apprenticeship as a photographic retoucher. (Purcell, 2006 : 16) Muller spent only one month in a local printer s office than he left. He felt a need to continue with his artistic desires. The period between the world wars strongly influenced M ller s development of art Tschichold s The New Typography and also the work of El Lissitzky or Otto Baumberger. M ller even advocated the opinion that Baumberger was the ingenious, unsurpassed master of large, often monumental, picture language with the minimum of illustrative and chromatic means he was the first and unsurpassed master of the objective informative poster. (Purcell, 2006 : 21) In 1931 M ller became an apprentice to the designer and advertising consultant of Alex Walter Diggelmann at Studio Diggelmann s Zurich offices. Although Josef M ller had the financial problem, in 1932 he was registered as a student at the University of Zurich and at the citys Kunstegewerbeschule. Josef went to the Keller s graphic class to ask him for entrance to the class. Nevertheless, Ernst Keller had a full class and threw him out. M ller was relentless and went to the school every day, and finally Keller allowed him to the course. The young student was delighted at the studies. He was interested in studies of painting, sculpture and design, anatomy, experiments in perpective, and studies of typography. In spite of that he was still unsure about his future direction. At the age of twenty M ller deemed advisable to establish himself, he would need to find a future work. At this time he replied to an offer to work as a designer for Mauser Seeds Ltd. to create a series of shop windows decorations. Josef M ller was convinced that his teachers Ernst Keller and Alfred Willimann strongly influenced him. In the era of World War II Josef M ller continued to work on the projects in Zurich, although he was a member of army. Because of the Switzerland position and its neutrality he was relatively calm. However, influenced by the anxienty about Naciz, influenced by the Swiss population isolated from the rest of the world he began to investigate his work in depth and sought of merits of the case. During this period M ller met the violinist Verena Brock mann, his future wife. Together with her father, Professor Dr. Heinrich Brockmann Jerosch and architect Johann Albert Freytag, he found a system of form and function. The products of graphic design are compromise between form and function, consequently analogous to architecture. The form would follows the function. So graphic design did not have only function to inform but also an education mission to cultivate an everyday life of person. During this period Josef married with Verena, he changed his name to M ller Brockmann. On 8 May 1945, M ller Brockmann, along with the rest of Europe, celebrated the end of war. (Purcell, 2006 : 51) Swiss designers reputedly confused graphic design and advertisement. Despite of the visual communication is closely associated with advertisement. Graphic design and advertisement are components of general questions for common visual communication. In the post war period M ller Brockmann focused on visual identity. For the first time he used advertisement for propagation of Hermes typewriter. Josef M ller Brockmann worked for Hermes for six years. The work for Hermes was influenced by surreal aesthetics as most of his work from this period for example Die Kleine Freiheit (small Munich theatre). As a young person I had no clear perception of my future I only knew that my professional career depended on my energy, self criticism, discipline, and permanent desire to learn. Josef Muller Brockmann (Purcell, 2006 : 11) Afterwards he switched the direction of his work and began to think about constructivism and international language. Nevertheless, instead of abstraction M ller Brockmann used to work with simplicity, geometric forms and to create a harmony of space similar to music. This harmony between art and music he firstly used in commission for the poster for concert of Johann Sebastian Bach in 1950. The same principle was consequently used for Zurich Tonhalle posters. (fig. 23, 25). This transitional style abstract shape or drawn illustration still evoked his influences than the international Swiss style. M ller Brockmann continued with work for Zurich Concert Hall for more than twenty five years. He has modernized his style in 1953 for exhibition poster titled Das Plakat (fig. 24). The commission consists of six posters, each one was a single letter of the exhibition title P , L , A , K , A , T . Each letter was given to different designers such as Hans Falk, Adolf Fl ckiger, and Celestino Piatti. M ller Brockmann made T , he underlined his illustration by using light. The title of the exhibition is in Akzidenz Grotesk typeface, placed in the highlited T. He used capital letters for both words of Das Plakat. Information about the opening times and dates are vertically down the main stroke. M ller Brockmann did not use only illustrations but he exposed these two images (illustrations) in the darkroom, photo its and retouched the protography. In 1952 he designed public signage for the Swiss Automobile Club Accidens Gauge. This Accident Gauge was installed on the Paradeplatz in Zurich, where it warned of the hazards of driving by presenting a numerical summary that highlighted each week s total automobile related accidents and deaths. It was designed and constructed in an abstract three dimensional designs influenced by Russian Constructivistics in the 1920s. (Eskilson S. J. , 2007 : 303) M ller Brockmann made also an excelent use of Akzidenz Grotesk. This typeface is actually appropriate for this kind of advertisement the numerical statistics without emotions. Josef M ller Brockmann also collaborated with Automobile club of Switzerland for a poster design that would refer to padestrians, cyclists and drivers in one traffic (fig. 18, 21). These posters have wonderful use of perspective, the yellow road urge the situation figured at the poster it made it effective. Brockmann worked with E. A. Heiniger on most of the Automob ile Club of Switzerland posters. M ller Brockmann continued to create unconventional designs for them for several years. M ller Brockmann s geniuses grew in and through the years he became a modernist. For the Zurich Concert Hall posters he used all lowercase for the text and geometric abstract forms instead of the illustrations. Beethoven poster (fig.26) for the Zurich Tonhalle represents the epitome of the Swiss style: curves and asymmetry. By the 1950s, he was established as the leading practitioner and theorist of the Swiss Style, which sought a universal graphic expression through a grid-based design purged of extraneous illustration and subjective feeling. His Musica viva (fig. 20, 27) poster series for the Zurich Tonhalle drew on the language of Constructivism to create a visual correlative to the structural harmonies of the music. In 1960 M ller Brockmann designed a typographic poster for exhibition at the Zurich Kunstgewerbemuseum, der Film (fig. 28). It is perharps one of his most celebrated designs. The poster type and space communicate in an inventive and original manner. The grid system is used by typographer, graphic designer, photographer and exhibition designer for solving visual problems in two and three dimensions. (Brockmann, 2001 : 13)34 swiss style One important part of the Swiss Style is its remarkable use of photography. Following the modernist ideas in which photography was a much better tool to portray reality than drawings and illustrations, the Neue grafik magazine, a very important Swiss graphic design publication at the time, dedicated a big part of its content to photography and its application in design. tem. The grid system allowed him to organize his subject matter to create more effective design, not to be overwhelmed by the seeming chaos and complexity of design decisions. The predecessor of this system was Piet Mondrian, the grid is often recognized in his paintings. His compositions are composed of horizontal and vertical lines and rectangular planes. According to M ller Brockmann the grid system is about structure and mathematical thinking. This is the expression of a professional ethos: the designer s work should have the clearly intelligible, objective, functional and aesthetics quality of mathematical thinking. (Brockmann, 2001 : 10) M ller Brockmann was a professor of graphic design at the Kunstgewerbeschule, Zurich from 1957 to 1960. Later he was a design consultant to IBM Europe from 1967 1988. He published various books about his work and won a lot of awards. He is the author of The Graphic Artist and his Design Problems (1961), History of Visual Communication (1981) or A History of the Poster. He also founded the Muller-Brockmann Co advertising agency in 1967, lasting until 1984. The new typography The New Typography came about as a reaction to the communication credos of Modernism which called for designs to be timeless minimal and geometric. The first principles of the New Typography appeared in Merz magazine in 1923. El Lissitzky promoted there more dynamic typography. In his work El Lissitzky pioneered a new approach to typographic art which had a huge impact upon graphic design. Lasl Moholo Nagy supported in addition typophoto, phototext too. At the same time as typophoto, Moholo Nagy introduced the idea of the photograph not only as illustration but, alternatively, as phototext , replacing words, as an unambiguous form of representation, which in its objectivity (Sachlichkeit) leaves no room for personal accidental interpretation. (Hollis, 2006 : 40) In both Lissitzky and Laszlo Moholy-Nagy we see emphasis placed upon the element of expression the expression of content through form. In contrast, Jan Tschichold was more concerned with order and organization. He used sans serif type, asymmetric compositions, the benefits of white space and the limiting of typefaces. Tschichold in his book, earlier mentioned, Die neue Typographie (The New Typography) formulated the basics of these rules and modern visual communication, influenced by functional trend of Bauhaus. Many of these principles of the New Typography are explained in this book. He introduced a theoretical look at typography devoid of concerns for printing practicality. These principles were also presented at the exhibitions in Switzerland, where it came to subconsciousness of audience. It was Tschichold who acted as a guide to a typographic practise which followed the demand for a new unity of art and technology. (Hollis, 2006 : 38) Tschichold advertised in his book a new sans-serif typeface as Akzidenz Grotesk (now known as Helvetica). Tschichold reiterates that clarity is the highest goal and Akzidenz Grot esk has this clarity. This typeface became the 39 swiss style most common for the New Typography and later for Swiss graphic design and the International Style. In fact, when Jan Tschichold wrote Die neue Typographie, he ignored any use of non sans-serif typefaces. With this philosophy, graphic designers were aiming the clarity, simplicity and universality. The Swiss Style advocates that the typeface does not have to be expressive in itself, it must be an unobtrusive instrument of expression. Helvetica was created in 1953 by Miedinger with Eduard Hoffmann at the Haas sche Schriftgiesserei (Haas type foundry) of M nchenstein, Switzerland. Haas designed a new sans-serif typeface that could compete with Akzidenz Grotesk in the Swiss market. Originally called Neue Haas Grotesk, the typefaces name was changed by Haas German parent company Stempel in 1960 to Helvetica derived from Confederatio Helvetica, the Latin name for Switzerland in order to make it more marketable internationally. Helvetica became the most widely used sans-serif typefaces ever. Akzidenz Grotesk was performed by Max Bill and Josef M ller Brockmann throughout their careers. Designer Paul Renner, while designing his typeface Futura, relied heavily on precise drafting tools such as the compass, T-square and the triangle. This allowed Renner to escape the traditional methods of type design in favor of the rigidity of mechanical constructions. Geometrical Futura was the next popular choice for graphic designers. The Swiss typographer Adrian Frutiger was one of the most prominent typeface designers ever mainly because of his famous typeface Univers. He studied calligraphy at the Z rich Kunstgewerbeschule. His interest in sculpture helped construct his style as

the aztec and maya Essay -- essays research papers

The Aztec and Maya were both American Indian people. The Aztec were ruled by a mighty empire in Mexico during the 1400's and early 1500's. The Maya however, developed a magnificent civilization in Central America and Southern Mexico. Both civilizations contributed a great deal to the modern world and invented items that are still used today.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  According to the Aztec Legend, the ancestors of the people who founded Tenochtitlan, came to the Valley of Mexico. The Aztec wandered for many years before settling in the valley in 1200's. At first, they were subjects of people who lived in the area, but later, in the mid 1300's, the Aztec founded their own city, Tenochtitlan. By the early 1400's, Tenochtitlan had become a powerful city and controlled the region around it, nearly forming a city-state. Tenochtitlan became the most powerful member of the alliance with Texcoco and Tlacopan. It began to build up to what eventually became the Aztec empire. Many years before the Aztec empire was created, the heart of the Maya civilization was also developing. The first farmers settled in the area of El Petà ©n as early as 2500 BC, in search for fertile land for crops. By 800 BC, the Maya lowlands were completely settled. Just after this time, was the classic period, which lasted from 250 to 900 AD. During these years, the Maya founded their greatest cities and made their remarkable achievements in the arts and sciences. The city of Teotihuacan had the strongest inf...

Socrates and Thrasymachus in Republic Essay -- Philosophy Philosophica

Socrates and Thrasymachus in Republic Socrates and Thrasymachus have a dialogue in Chapter 2 of Republic which progresses from a discussion of the definition of morality, to an understanding of the expertise of ruling, and eventually to a debate on the state of human nature. The Thrasymachian view of human nature has interesting implications in regards to Thomas Nagel’s ideal of egalitarianism, and Barbara Ehrenreich’s discontentment with the economic disparity in our democratic society. Although Thrasymachus is thwarted in conversation, Glaucon finds the outcome not entirely conclusive and directs Socrates to proving that morality, in and of itself, is a worthwhile pursuit. Thrasymachus opens the discussion with Socrates claiming, â€Å"morality is the advantage of the stronger party.† (Republic 338c) By this he means ‘moral’ actions are those in accordance with the laws of the stronger party. He explicates his position by saying, â€Å"each government passes laws with a view to its own advantage: a democracy makes democratic laws, a dictatorship makes dictatorial laws†¦ In so doing, each government makes it clear that what is right and moral for its subjects is what is to its own advantage.† (Republic 338e) In this example Thrasymachus claims that â€Å"morality is the advantage of the current government.† (Republic 339a) In giving this claim Thrasymachus implies that: 1. Morality is not objective. 2. Morality is defined as compliance with the laws given by the governing party. 3. The governing party creates laws based on what (it thinks!) will serve its own advantage. 4. The governing party creates morality for its subjects with the purpose of serving its own advantage. Thrasymachus defines ‘right’ as acti... ...count for the lack of success of egalitarian societies that Nagel proposes, and the economic disparity that Ehrenreich addresses. Socrates must respond to both Thrasymachus and Glaucon’s reiteration by showing that a moral life is good in and of itself, rather than for its consequences. The dialogue between Socrates and Thrasymachus, and later with Socrates, Glaucon, and Adeimantus prompts Plato to write the rest of Republic in explanation of what a moral community is, and how such a blueprint can be applied to a moral individual. Works Cited 1. Plato (trans. Robin Waterfield). Republic, Oxford University Press Inc., New York. 1998 edition. 2. Nagel, Thomas. â€Å"Equality and Partiality,† in Classics of Political and Moral Philosophy, ed. Steven Cahn (Oxford University Press, 2002). 3. Ehrenreich, Barbara. Nickel and Dimed. Henry Holt & Company 2001.

Carolyn Forche and The Country Between Us :: Country Between Us Essays

Carolyn Forche and The Country Between Us      Ã‚   While reading Carolyn Forche's poetry in her book The Country Between Us, I often wondered what this woman has gone through while spending her time in El Salvador. She lived in El Salvador during an ugly state: a time when this country was in the middle of a civil war and bloodshed. All those acts of cruelty that she faced and so clearly wrote about must have been troublesome on her heart. And now thanks to her we can understand a piece of history and the cruelty of mankind through her poems. These poems that strike interest in our minds, would seem as if they would still strike fear in hers. That is, to overcome those terrible memories would take a lifetime, if that were even conceivable. But in her final poem of this book she suggests that these unforgettable details can possibly be put aside. This poem she dedicates to Terrence Des Pres, someone who also has gone through similar tragedies and titles it "Ourselves Or Nothing." The experiences they had and endu red, Terrence Des Pres and Carolyn Forche, in turn, allowed Forche the stamina and fortitude which she encouraged within Des Pres, and thus dedicated her writing to him.    Terrence Des Pres was a friend of Carolyn Forche's. He too was an author that wrote great contemporary poetry, the most significantly a poetic work called The Survivor: An Anatomy of Life in the Death Camps. He had written this literary novel upon witnessing the tragedies occurring during the Holocaust of World War II, an event that we understand to be one of the most inhumane and gruesome events of human recollection. The Holocaust intrigued him and captured his mind and soul. Besides completion of his novel he taught at Colgate University a literature course on the Holocaust. And from his experiences, as summarized of Des Pres in the Triquarterly Fall 1996, he taught students of what he repeatedly called the "dark times" of 20th-century political life. But all these experiences he faced, and the constant reminder of them carried a great price. He drank a lot, especially as his work on the Holocaust grew more harrowing. It is noted, once while writing his book he thought he was having a heart attack, but he was medically fine; instead his memories of the Holocaust had been squeezing at his chest causing psychosomatic symptoms.

Dc Comics (2012-2013)

Report on DC COMICS for Business Studies Introduction DC comics incorporated is a leading pioneer and one of the most successful enterprise in the American comic books and many related media industries (comic books, movies, games and etcetera) . Founded by Malcolm Wheeler Nicholson in 1934, it was originally known as ‘National Allied Publication' the initials ‘DC' was taken from the popular series ‘Detective Comics' which subsequently became part of the company's name.DC comics is the publishing unit for DC Entertainment a Warner Bros company which itself is owned by Time Warner, producing materials incorporating renown DC characters such as Superman an alien who was sent from the lost planet Krypton, raised on Earth and instilled with a sense of justice from the Superman franchise (Action comics) and Batman a rogue Vigilante by night and by day millionaire, playboy, philanthropist Bruce Wayne from the Dark Knight franchise (debuting in Detective comics). DC comics mission and visionDC's mission is to intergrades its comic business, brand and characters into Warner Bros Entertainment and all its content and distribution business. DC comic envisions to expand and develop the DC brand to every type of media. DC comics annual reports (2009-2012) DC comics future plans DC plans to launch a wave of new DC movies in response to Marvels shared movie gamble (Avengers). Starting with the reboot of Superman (Man of Steel 2013), along with other upcoming silver screen movies featuring other DC uperheroes like Wonder woman, the Flash and others (DC haven yet to decide whether it will reboot the batman franchise or continue Christopher Nolan's Dark Knight and to bring back Ryan Reynold's role as Green Lantern (2011). Although DC hasn't revealed how the movies will be incorporated, whether it be following in the Dark Knight's lead (a single franchise) or become a shared movie plan is still yet unknown.

Electric Scooter Market in China- Market Competition & Opportunities Essay

Research and Forecast of China Electric Scooter Industry, 2014-2018 mainly conducts in-depth market research on Electric Scooter market in the following aspects: market scale, supply and demand, market competition and business performance of major enterprises, meanwhile it makes a prediction about electric scooter industry and provides decision-making references for investors. In 2013, the demand volume of electric scooters in China reached 1. 05 million units, an increase of 31. 25% year-on-year. In current electric scooter market, the products mainly serve for the elderly, the disabled and home women; with the deepened population aging degree and the increased consumption level, the demand for electric scooter is also growing increasingly. Complete Report @ http://www. marketreportschina. com/research-and-forecast-of-china-electric-scooter-industry-2014-2018 . Inquire Before Buying @ http://www. marketreportschina. com/contacts/inquire-before-buy? rname=4357 . Table Of Contents 1. Overview of China’s Electric Scooter Products 1. 1 Product Brief Introduction 1. 1. 1 Brief Introduction 1. 1. 2 Composition 1. 1. 3 Advantages 1. 2 Classification 2. Electric Scooter Situation in Foreign Countries and Taiwan 2. 1 Foreign Countries 2. 2 Taiwan 3. Environment of China’s Electric Scooter Industry 3. 1 Economic Environment 3. 2 Industry Relevant Policies, Standards, Laws and Regulations 4. Characteristics of Electric Scooter Industry 4. 1 Concentration Ratio 4. 2 SWOT 4. 3 Industry Chain 4. 4 Competitive Landscape 5. Supply and Demand in China’s Electric Scooter Market 5. 1 Supply Situation 5. 1. 1 Supply Situation 5. 1. 2 Main Brands 5. 2 Demand Situation 5. 3 Demand Factors 5. 4 Price Situation 5. 4. 1 Price 5. 4. 2 Factors Affecting the Price 5. 4. 3 Price Trend 6. Overview of China’s Low Speed Electric Vehicle 6. 1 Brief Introduction 6. 1. 1 Product Introduction 6. 1. 2 Main Products and the Introduction 6. 2 Development Situation in China 6. 3 Overview of China’s Main Manufacturers 6. 4 Market Situation of Four-wheel Low Speed Electric Vehicle Market and the Forecast 6. 4. 1 Current Application Situation. 6. 4. 2 Domestic Market 6. 4. 3 International Market 7. Import and Export of China’s Electric Scooters 7. 1 Import and Export 7. 2 Sources of Import and Destinations of Export 8. Technological Development of Electric Scooter Products 8. 1 Technological Development Situation 8. 1. 1 Relevant Domestic Patents 8. 1. 2 Research Situation 8. 2 Technological Development Direction 8. 2. 1 Technological Maturity in China and Technological Difference between China and Foreign Countries 8. 2. 2 Technological Development Direction 9. Main Enterprises and Competitive Landscape in China’s Electric Scooter Industry 9. 1 Feishen Group Co. , Ltd. 9. 1. 1 Company Profile 9. 1. 2 Company Strength 9. 1. 3 Independent R&D Situation 9. 1. 4 Business Performance 9. 2 Jinhua ACEME Electric Co. , Ltd. 9. 2. 1 Company Profile 9. 2. 2 Company Strength 9. 2. 3 Development Trend 9. 2. 4 Business Performance 9. 3 Zhejiang Ripu Electronic Science and Technology Co. , Ltd. 9. 3. 1 Company Profile 9. 3. 2 Company Strength 9. 3. 3 Business Performance 9. 4 Wisking Electromechanical Product Co. , Ltd. 9. 4. 1 Company Profile 9. 4. 2 Company Strength 9. 4. 3 Business Performance 9. 5 Xuzhou Maston Mobility Co. , Ltd. 9. 5. 1 Company Profile 9. 5. 2 Company Strength 9. 5. 3 Business Performance 9. 5. 4 Development Strategy 10. Development Forecast and Investment Prospect of China’s Electric Scooter Industry 10. 1 Forecast of Supply, 2014-2018 10. 2 Forecast of Demand, 2014-2018 10. 3 Main Development Direction 11. Investment Suggestions and Opinions from the Experts 11. 1 Investment Opportunity 11. 1. 1 Market Space 11. 1. 2 Industry Development Trend. 11. 2 Investment Risk 11. 2. 1 Horizontal Competition Risk 11. 2. 2 Market Trade Risk 11. 2. 3 Influence of Industry Policy Changes 11. 3 Risk Precautionary Measure and Industry Coping Strategy 11. 3. 1 Precautionary Measure for Horizontal Competition Risk 11. 3. 2 Actively Develop Upstream Sellers and Downstream Consumers to Reduce Market Risk 11. 3. 3 Coping Strategy of Enterprises Request Discount @ http://www. marketreportschina. com/contacts/discount? rname=4357 . Buy Report @ http://www. marketreportschina. com/contacts/purchase? rname=4357.